Comparative Assessment of Drinking Water Quality and Community Perception in Lower Dir, Pakistan

Abstract

The study examined bore wells, open wells, tube wells, and spring water quality in Kityari and Baghkandi villages, of Lower Dir, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This study combined community perspective with biological, chemical, physical, and heavy metal investigation of drinking water sources to fill the gap in localized water quality research. Multiparameter tester, turbidity meter, titration, colorimetric technique, UV Spectrophotometer, ASS, and plate count method was used to examine 110 drinking water samples. Water quality was compared to Pak EPA and WHO drinking water standards. Kityari's bore, open, and tube well water analysis exceeded salt limits (318, 298, and 239 mg/L). Baghkandi bore well samples had acidic pH (6.40) and high salt levels (213 mg/L). Open wells had high salt levels (295 mg/L), and acidic pH (6.33). Tube wells had acidic pH (6.09) and high salts (230.5). Baghkandi's bore wells, open wells and tube wells all exhibited elevated levels of F- (4.07, 3.5 and 3.05 mg/L). Springs also had high F- (3.3 mg/L). Local geology can dissolve fluoride-rich minerals into groundwater from water sources, causing high F levels. Analysis of heavy metals revealed that Fe (1.77, 1.11 mg/L), Cd (0.06, 0.01mg/L), Ni (0.12, 0.41mg/L), Pb (0.54, 0.73mg/L), and Zn (7.92, 4.88mg/L) exceeded the permissible limits across all water source samples. All water sources had total coliforms and bacteria. Hazard Quotient (HQ) > 1 for Cd, Pb, and Zn (adults) and children in Kityari. Adults and children in Baghkandi had HQ > 1 for Pb, Ni, Cd, Zn, and Pb. Zn and Fe had the highest CDI. The ILCR showed Ni and Cd were substantial concerns in both villages. Kityari respondents were somewhat satisfied with their water quality, but Baghkandi respondents were not. Baghkandi had dental fluorosis, renal, and digestive disorders, whereas Kityari had some digestive challenges. Septic tanks, waste disposal sites and agricultural runoff present potential water pollution concerns. The study concluded that only properly treated water can be drinkable. Boiling, sand or activated carbon filtration, UV/RO treatment, chlorination, and regular water quality monitoring are recommended.